Table 1 Reported pathologies of the extrahepatic biliary tract in mammalian exotic pets and wildlife species
From: Extrahepatic biliary tract pathologies in mammalian species of zoo animals and wildlife: a review
Category | Underlying cause | Described pathological alterations | Species concerned | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
OrderProboscidea | ||||
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Bacterial infection of biliary tract with Salmonella London | Around 1 liter of faceted gall stones in hepatic duct (up to 2 cm in diameter); thickened and dilated bile ducts | Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) c | Decker and Krohn (1973) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined, diet?, bacterial infection of biliary tract? | One single cholelith (4.0 kg) composed mainly out of bile alcohols and a small amount of bilirubin | African elephant (Loxodonta africana) f | Agnew et al. (2005) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined | Many choleliths (diameter of 1–6 cm) in severly dilated and mildly inflamed bile duct | African elephant (Loxodonta africana) c | Pagan et al. (1999) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined, diet?, bacterial infection of biliary tract? | Several gallstones in bile ducts (diameter of around 8 cm) | Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) c | Jarofke (2007) |
Parasitological | Fasciola jacksoni | Parasites in bile ducts | Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) c,f | Caple et al. (1978); Evans (1910); Perera and Rajapakse (2009) |
OrderChiroptera | ||||
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined | Conformation of choleliths in gall bladder or bile duct | Flying fox (Pteropus sp.) ns | Farina and Lankton (2018) |
Neoplastic | Secondary to hepatic heochromatosis? | Cholangiocarcinoma | Egyptian fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus) | Leone et al. (2016) |
 Parasitological | Toxocara pteropodis | Parasite in gall bladder | Spectacled flying-fox (Pteropus conspicillatus) c | Prociv (1990) |
OrderCarnivora | ||||
 Infectious | Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Cholecystitis with subsequent rupture of the gall bladder | Domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) c | Huynh et al. (2014) |
 Infectious | Undetermined | Cholangiohepatitis, bile duct hyperplasia | Domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) c | GarcÃa et al. (2002) |
 Infectious | Isospora sp. | Neoplastic-like thickening of the common bile duct | American mink (Neovison vison) c | Davis et al. (1953) |
 Infectious | Streptococcus sp., Escherichia coli | Cholecystitis | Kinkajou (Potos flavus) c | Potier and Reineau (2015) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Calcium carbonate, phosphate, bile pigments | Conformation of choleliths in bile duct | Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) ns | Illingworth (1936) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined | A solitary green and orange cholelith with a diameter of 2 cm in the gall bladder | Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) c | Moulton (1961) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined | Conformation of choleliths (70% palmitic calcium, 30% proteins) | Kinkajou (Potos flavus) c | Potier and Reineau (2015) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined, parasitic infection (ascariasis)? | Single cholelith and cholecystitis | Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) c | Vali et al. (2016) |
 Neoplastic | Undetermined, age? | Gall bladder adenocarcinoma, biliary cystadenoma | African lion (Panthera leo) c | |
 Neoplastic | Undetermined | Bile duct carcinoma | Black panther (Panthera pardus) c | Hubbard et al. (1983) |
 Neoplastic | Undetermined | Biliary cystadenoma | Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) c | Chu et al. (2012) |
 Neoplastic | Undetermined, secondary to intrahepatic biliary cysts? | Biliary cystadenoma and cystadenocarcinoma | Black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) c | Lair et al. (2002) |
 Neoplastic | Undetermined | Adenocarcinoma of the gall bladder | Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) c | |
 Neoplastic | Undetermined | Biliary carcinoma | Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) c | Montali et al. (1981) |
 Neoplastic | Undetermined | Biliary cystadenoma | Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) c | Chu et al. (2012) |
 Neoplastic | Undetermined | Cholangiocarcinoma, bile duct adenocarcinoma | Margay cat (Felis wiedii) c | |
 Neoplastic | Age?, undetermined | Leiomyosarcoma of the gall bladder | Giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) c | Peters et al. (2007) |
 Parasitological | Eimeria sp. | Gall bladder wall thickened, bile ducts enlarged and firm | Domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) c | Williams et al. (1996) |
 Parasitological | Pseudamphistomum truncatum | Significant alterations of gall bladder walls, thickened shrunken gall bladder | American mink (Neovison vison) f | |
 Parasitological | Pseudamphistomum truncatum | Significant alterations of gall bladder walls, thickened shrunken gall bladder | Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) f | |
 Parasitological | Pseudamphistomum truncatum | Cholangiohepatitis, hepatic fibrosis | Gray seal (Halichoerus grypus) f | Neimanis et al. (2016) |
OrderArtiodactyla | ||||
 Neoplastic | Undetermined | Gall bladder adenocarcinoma | Alpaca (Vicugna pacos) c | Lombard and Witte (1959) |
 Parasitological | Fasciola gigantica | Bile duct calcification | Uganda kob (Kobus kob) f | Bindernagel (1972) |
 Parasitological | Fasciola gigantica | Bile duct calcification | Hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus) f | Bindernagel (1972) |
 Parasitological | Fasciola gigantica | Bile duct calcification | African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) f | Bindernagel (1972) |
 Parasitological | Dicrocoelium dendriticum | Bile duct thickening | Mouflon (Ovis orientalis) f | |
 parasitological | Dicrocoelium dendriticum | Bile duct thickening | Fallow deer (Dama dama) f | |
 Parasitological | Dicrocoelium dendriticum | Bile duct thickening | Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) f | |
 Parasitological | Dicrocoelium dendriticum | Bile duct thickening | Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) f | |
 Parasitological | Dicrocoelium dendriticum | Bile duct thickening | Red deer (Cervus elaphus) f | |
 Parasitological | Dicrocoelium dendriticum | Bile duct thickening | White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) f | |
 Parasitological | Cooperioides hepaticae | Cholangitis, bile duct thickening, gall bladder dilatation | Impala (Aepyceros melampus) f | Gallivan et al. (1996) |
 Parasitological | Stilesia hepatica | Thickening and distention of main bile duct | Impala (Aepyceros melampus) f | Gallivan et al. (1996) |
 Parasitological | Fasciola gigantica | Thickening main bile duct | Impala (Aepyceros melampus) f | Gallivan et al. (1996) |
 Parasitological | Dicrocoelium dendriticum | Parasites in bile ducts | Alpaca (Vicugna pacos) c | Kaufmann et al. (2007) |
 Parasitological | Fasciola gigantica | Cholecystitis, gall bladder hyperplasia | Philippine brown deer (Cervus mariannus) f | Portugaliza et al. (2015) |
OrderPrimates | ||||
 Infectious? | Undetermined | Cholecystitis | Common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) c | |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Septation gall bladder? | Conformation of choleliths (mainly composed of cystine and calcium oxalate) | Golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia) c | Pissinatti et al. (1992) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Septation gall bladder? | Conformation of choleliths (mainly composed of cystine and calcium oxalate) | Golden-headed lion tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysomelas) c | Pissinatti et al. (1992) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Septation gall bladder? | Conformation of choleliths (mainly composed of cystine and calcium oxalate) | Black lion tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysopygus) c | Pissinatti et al. (1992) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Septation gall bladder? | Conformation of choleliths (mainly composed of cystine and calcium oxalate) | Wied´s marmoset (Callithrix kuhlii) c | Pissinatti et al. (1992) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined | Conformation of choleliths (100% composed of calcium bilirubinate), cholecystitis | Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) c | Kessler (1982) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Presumably caused by increased biliary cholesterol levels | Conformation of choleliths (11 stones measuring up to 4 mm), edematous gall bladder walls | Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) c | Martin et al. (1973) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined | Conformation of choleliths | Baboon (Papio sp.) c | McSherry et al. (1971) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Cholesterol | Conformation of choleliths (100% cholesterol), gall bladder fibrosis | Slender loris (Loris tardigradus) c | Plesker et al. (2012) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined | Conformation of choleliths | Galago (Galago crassicaudatus) c | Burkholder et al. (1971) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined | One single cholelith | Common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) c | Tucker (1984) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined, diet? | Single gallstone (70x30 mm) obstructed the common bile duct | Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) c | Chatterton et al. (2011) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Age?, bacterial infection of biliary tract? | Choleliths composed exclusively out of pigments | Callithrix sp. c | Chenet and Petit (2018) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Age?, bacterial infection of biliary tract? | Choleliths composed exclusively out of pigments | Leonthopithecus sp. c | Chenet and Petit (2018) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined | Dilated ductus choledochus containing biliary sludge with stenosis of the duodenal papilla | Sumatran orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus abelii) c | Schuele et al. (2018) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Inflammatory ileal disease?, abnormal protein metabolism? | Cholelith in bile duct (95% cystine, 5% miscellaneous) | Black lion tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysopygus) c | Smith et al. (2006) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Inflammatory ileal disease?, abnormal protein metabolism? | Choleliths in gall bladder and bile duct (5% cholesterol, 95% miscellaneous respectively 70% calcium phosphate, 30% miscellaneous) | Golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia) c | Smith et al. (2006) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Inflammatory ileal disease?, abnormal protein metabolism? | Cholelith in gall bladder (60% miscellaneous, 40% calcium carbonate respectively 80% cystine, 20% miscellaneous) | Golden lion tamarin (Callithrix argentata) c | Smith et al. (2006) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Inflammatory ileal disease?, abnormal protein metabolism? | Cholelith in gall bladder | Wied´s marmoset (Callithrix kuhlii) c | Smith et al. (2006) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | cholesterol and proteins | Conformation of choleliths | African green monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops) c | Kleinlützum and Plesker (2017) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined | Conformation of choleliths | Squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) c | Lieberman et al. (2016) |
Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined | One single large cholelith (composed of cholesterol, bile salts and pigments) lead to gall bladder rupture and fatal peritonitis | Orangutan (Pongo sp.) c | Fox (1930) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Undetermined | Multiple (10-15) choleliths in gall bladder with a diameter of 2-3 mm and composed almost completely of cholesterol | Owl monkey (Aotus trivirgatus) c | Anver et al. (1972) |
 Neoplastic | Undetermined | Gall bladder adenocarcinoma | Guinea baboon (Papio papio) c | Lombard and Witte (1959) |
 Neoplastic | Undetermined | Cholangioma | Slow loris (Nycticebus coucang) c | Chu et al. (2012) |
 Neoplastic | Aflatoxin B1 (experimentally induced) | Adenocarcinoma of gall bladder and/or bile ducts | Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) c | Sieber et al. (1979) |
 Neoplastic | Aflatoxin B1 (experimentally induced) | Adenocarcinoma of gall bladder and/or bile ducts | Cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis) c | Sieber et al. (1979) |
 Neoplastic | Age?, undetermined | Gall bladder adenoma | Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) c | Starost and Martino (2002) |
OrderRodentia | ||||
 Infectious? | Undetermined | Chronic severe cholecystitis with greatly thickened walls | Viscacha (Lagostomus maximus) c | Hamerton (1932) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Calcium carbonate, phosphate, bile pigments | Conformation of choleliths | Beaver (Castor sp.) ns | Illingworth (1936) |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Diet (fiber content), season | Conformation of choleliths (100% cholesterol) | Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus gambelii) f | |
 Metabolic (cholelithiasis) | Diet (rich in cholesterol?) | Conformation of choleliths | Cottonrat (Sigmodon hispidus) f | Pence et al. (1978) |
OrderLagomorpha | ||||
 Parasitological | Dicrocoelium dendriticum | Bile duct thickening | European hare (Lepus europaeus) f | |
 Parasitological | Dicrocoelium dendriticum | Bile duct thickening | European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) f | |